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Social
Psychology
Martin Gold
With Elizabeth Douvan
AMERICAN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON,
DC
Contents
Preface
..........................................................
Acknowledgments
................................................
PART
I
PROBLEMS
AND SOLUTIONS
......................
Introduction
...................................................
1
ix
...
Xlll
1
3
5
21
Whatever Happened to Social Psychology?
..................
Integrative Strategies
......................................
PART
I1 STRUCTURE
........................................
Introduction
...................................................
3
The
Person
................................................
4
Social Organization
........................................
5
Interpersonal Relations
....................................
6
2
51
53
55
69
91
117
Culture
....................................................
PART 111 DYNAMICS
.........................................
Introduction
...................................................
7
141
143
145
167
185
Socialization and Institutionalization
.......................
8 Interpersonal Dynamics: Identification
.....................
9 Cultural Dynamics:
Persuasion
.............................
PART
JY
APPLICATIONS
.....................................
Introduction
...................................................
10
203
205
207
Group Dynamics
...........................................
Sex and Gender
in
Social Psychology
11
by Elizabeth Douvan
.......................................
Authority: Obedience. Defiance. and Identification in
Experimental and Historical Contexts
by FranCois Rochat and Andre Modigliani
..................
12
235
247
Conclusion
.................................................
13
References
.......................................................
Author Index
.....................................................
Subject Index
....................................................
About
the
Author
................................................
257
273
279
287
vii
Preface
Social psychology
is
hardly recognizable as
a
discipline;
it
wants definition
and integration, and
its
place among the sciences is not fixed clearly. These
are not new problems; they
go
back decades.
Practicing social psychologists must find this confusion in our field
disturbing.
I
certainly do; it hinders my research and my teaching. Going
to the social psychological literature for theoretical and empirical bases
for research means rummaging through a disordered clutter: Not only are
none of the boxes where they should be, there is no telling where they
should be. And when
I
am called on
to
introduce undergraduates to social
psychology or to explain it to graduate students who aspire to join our
ranks,
I
am hard put to give them something definitive to read. Our texts
are in some ways the same and in many ways quite different, and there
is no discernible rationale for the similarities or differences.
Nevertheless, my reading of the literature in social science convinces
me that there is something that can be called a social psychological anal-
ysis of a phenomenon, distinct from other kinds of psychological analyses
and from other ways of doing social science. It simply has not been iden-
tified clearly. So
I
have felt impelled to define and order the discipline
somehow and have struggled with this for several years. I like to think
that
I
have made some progress, enough indeed to share my thinking with
a wider audience than my immediate colleagues and students, some
of
whom have encouraged me to do so.
Of course, this is neither the final word about social psychology, nor
even my final word. Nevertheless, what I present here has proved helpful
enough to me and to colleagues and students that
I
hope
it
will be helpful
to others as well.
I
imagine myself working on a large mosaic. The organization that
I
have imposed on social psychology incorporates pieces of psychology, in-
terpersonal relations, group dynamics, communications, sociology, and an-
thropology.
I
have selected the pieces with the intention of including the
full range of what I call “the person and the social environment.” I have
tried to place these domains in relation to one another, particularly as
they bear on the psychology of the person.
I
have tried to construct a
pattern recognizable
as
“social psychology” and to place
it
among the
sciences.
I
refer to the pattern as a
model.
This is meant to connote both an
image and
a
plan, a structure and a way of doing social psychology.
Its
primary use is to organize one’s social psychological thinking.
I
have found
the model helpful for structuring courses in social psychology
so
that they
seem
to
have a beginning and an end, one topic following reasonably after
another, theories more clearly juxtaposed, and seemingly disparate studies
related. For example, working through the model has led me
to a
more
heuristic conception of the field of group dynamics that might revitalize
this almost abandoned line of research (see chapter 10). The model has
also pointed out how such disparate approaches as psychoanalysis, social
ix
PREFACE
x
learning, and cognitive psychology are each useful in their own way
to
social psychology.
It
has helped me
to
understand better what the late
“crisis” in social psychology was all about and what we can learn from it
(see chapter 1).Some of my graduate students have found this framework
useful for organizing their reviews of literature and their doctoral theses.
I
have also found the model helpful as a guide for my research. It has
broadened my view of the determinants
of
the phenomena I study and has
helped me
to
understand better their relationships to one another. It
sharpens my focus on the social psychological aspects of research prob-
lems; provides a checklist of variables that
I
must include; and tells me
what literature-psychological,
sociological, and so on-I
should consult
for theory, measures, and interpretations of findings.
This is the organization of the presentation: It begins with
my
own
sense of the disciplinary problems of social psychology-framing them in
terms
of
the field‘s defining mission
to
explain the reciprocal influence of
the person and his or her social environment. Then I survey the literature
of proposed conceptual strategies for relating the social and the psycho-
logical, anticipating my own resolution in the ways
I
discuss other strat-
egies. The emphasis at that point in the argument is not on the substan-
tive details of the various strategies but rather on the different strategic
choices that thoughtful scholars have made. Having thus summoned the
giants on whose shoulders I teeter, I then presume to offer my own inte-
grative conceptual model. Here
I
risk alienating all other social psychol-
ogists by offering my own explicit definition of
social psychology,
which
I
discuss in some detail.
That takes us to the organization-the model-of social psychology.
I
present it from the inside out. That is, I first discuss the “person” from
a social psychological perspective, in effect staking out where social psy-
chology fits in the spectrum of the social sciences. Here,
I
lay out a sparse
set of psychological concepts by which the person is characterized. Then
I
conduct a guided tour
of
the peculiarly
social
regions of the individual’s
environment, first proceeding level by level through the
structure
of the
model, then describing the
dynamics
of the processes of social influence
that flow between the person and the levels of the social environment.
At
each level, I pause
to
sample the range of influences impinging on the
person there, and,
to
a lesser extent, to consider how the person may alter
that terrain.
I
also dwell briefly on the relationships among the various
levels of the social environment irrespective of the person’s psychology,
but only briefly because that takes us beyond the purview of social psy-
chology proper.
The next chapters are intended
to
show how the social psychological
model organizes and illuminates three specific substantive domains within
the discipline: group dynamics, gender roles and identity, and Milgram’s
(1974)
experiments on obedience.
Finally, I return to the problems
of
social psychology with which this
treatise began,
to
determine whether they have been rendered more
manageable.
In the course of all this, readers are warned, some familiar social psy-
PREFACE
XI
chological words are used in unfamiliar ways. Sometimes words are re-
stored to old and
(I
believe) more precise meanings. At other times, one
usage is drawn from a confused host of meanings and the term
is
stuck
with
it.
Readers will please bear with me and lay aside for the moment
all the other meanings
that
they have grown used to. For example, the
term
interpersonal relations,
which has become a synonym for social re-
lations generally, has been given a much more limited meaning here, for
want of a better term for the kind of social relation
I
want to delineate.
I
try to alert readers to these uncommon usages wherever it seems
necessary.
If the thinking of any of the social science giants has influenced this
work more than the others, it is Kurt Lewin’s. I never knew Lewin per-
sonally; he died suddenly at an age younger than my own at this writing.
I studied and worked with many of Lewin’s students, and in that sense, I
feel that I am an heir to his prodigious conceptual treasure. Readers fa-
miliar with the Lewinian approach-and
I
fear
that
there are too few of
them nowadays-will no doubt recognize Lewin’s influence in the strate-
gies I choose and the assumptions that
I
make. From time to time,
I
climb
particularly on Lewin’s shoulders when I specifically invoke a field theo-
retical analysis to clarify a point. Those familiar with Lewin’s work also
will find here a reflection of his eagerness to create a socially useful social
psychology.
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