PRESENT SIMPL2.doc

Język angielski, genetycznie należy do zachodniej grupy języków germańskich, najbliżej spokrewniony z językiem fryzyjskim, holenderskim oraz niemieckim (dialekty saksońskie). Powstał na podłożu dialektów, przeniesionych na zamieszkane przez Celtów Wyspy Brytyjskie przez plemiona Anglów, Sasów i Jutów w V i VI w., opanowując następnie większość obszaru obecnej Wielkiej Brytanii i wypierając języki celtyckie. Historia języka angielskiego obejmuje 3 okresy: 1) staroangielski (VI w.-ok. 1150), charakteryzujący się niemal zupełnym brakiem obcych wpływów, jednolitym germańskim słownictwem.

Wytworzyły się w tym okresie 3 gł. dialekty: anglijski, kentyjski i zachodniosaksoński, 2) średnioangielski (1150-1450), zapoczątkowany podbojem Anglii przez Normanów, będący okresem silnych wpływów obcych, gł. francuskich, a także skandynawskich (najazdy duńskie), oraz 3) nowoangielski (2. poł. XV w.), w którym język angielski, powstały na bazie dialektu londyńskiego z elementami języków staroangielskiego i francuskiego, ugruntował się jako język literacki.

Niekiedy wyróżnia się dodatkowo język angielski współczesny. Język nowoangielski osiągnął rozkwit w XVI-XVII w. (twórczość W. Shakespeare'a). Język angielski posiada wiele odmian, m.in.: brytyjską, amerykańską, kanadyjską, australijską i nowozelandzką, różniących się między sobą słownictwem i wymową. Używany jest w Wielkiej Brytanii, USA, Kanadzie, Australii i Nowej Zelandii. Jest ponadto językiem urzędowym (lub jednym z języków urzędowych) w państwach Wspólnoty Narodów. Posługuje się nim ok. 400 mln ludzi, jego znajomość w dzisiejszym świecie jest bardzo rozpowszechniona. Należy do języków analitycznych.

English is a Germanic language belonging to the Indio-European family, and developed from Anglo-Saxon dialects under the strong influence of Norman French and Latin. Its growth can be traced back to the 5th century AD when groups of West Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) settled in the British Isles. The Celts, the original inhabitants of the British Isles, left behind only a handful of words which have survived in modern English, e.g.bin, dun, and crag, as well as the names of such places as Dundee, Carlise, and Dover. Many rivers in Britan are called by Celtic names, e.g. Avon and Thames. The early influence of Latin is reflected in the word castrum (camp), which lies behind the names of British cities such as Lancaster, Doncaster, Winchester, etc.
Three stages of development

We can distinguish three stages in the development of English: Old English (8th-12th centuries), Middle English (12th-15th centuries) and Modern English (15th century until the present). In Old English adjectives, nouns, pronouns and verbs were inflected, as in Polish. Verbs had only two tenses:present and past. There were no articles in old English. The definite article the developed later from the Old English demonstrative se (that) and the indefinite article a/an from the numeral one. One remnant of Old English is the irregular plural in such words as: man/men, woman/women, foot/feet, tooth/teeth, goose/geese, mouse/mice, louse/lice and ox/oxen. The earliest monuments of Old English are inscriptions on stone or wood in a special alphabet known as "runes". Gradually the Latin alphabet began to be employed in Anglo-Saxon Britain. The vocabulary of Old English consisted mostly of words of Germanic stock. For example, the days of the week were named after the pagan gods of Norse mythology: Wednesay, after the supreme god Woden; Thusday after Thor, the god of thunder, and Friday after Frigga, Woden's wife. A small number of words were borrowed from Latin, e.g. bishop, candle, martyr, school, wine. The Vikings, who invaded Britain in the 8th-10th centuries, added such common words as window(wind's eye), call, die, get, give, take, skin, as well as the verb form are.

After the Norman invasion in 1066, Norman French became the official language of the court in England. It was a dialect of French influenced by popular Latin and Old Norse. Many modern English words derive from Norman French, e.g. beef, bacon, mutton, pork, veal, etc. Even today a court officer utters the words of Oyez, Oyez, meaning listen. This expression stems from the Norman word oir (to hear). A number of terms dealing with government, such as liberty, parliament, authority, etc., crossed the Channel along with the Normans. Although Norman French became the language of the Royal Court and the ruling class, Old English or Anglo-Saxon was still spoken by the common people. Gradually it was transformed into what is called Middle English, which lost most of its inflections and greatly expanded its vocabulary by borrowing from Norman French and Latin.

After the end of the 15th century the London dialect of English was recognised as the standard from of English, especially in writtig. The writers of the Elisabethan age (Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare and others) exerted a great influence on the growth and perfection of literary English. Shakespeare, a great master of the English language, invented many words which are now in common use, e.g.:accomodation, assassination, courtship; and idiomatic expressions: star-crossed lovers, the mind's eye, what the dickens, salad days, love is blind. A book which had a profound effects on the development of the standard form of the English language was the Authorised or King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611. It was widely read and helped to keep alive English words of Germanic stock. There are many expressions still used today which first appeared in the Authorised Version, e.g. by the skin of our teeth, an eye for an eye, cast pearls before swine, the salt of the earth, money is the root of all evil, in sheep's clothing.

The next factor which contributed to the development of standard or literary English was the Protestant Reformation. Numerous books on religion, treatises, and pamphlets written in plain English were distributed in churches or ordinary people. In the 17th and 18th centuries a number of English language dictionaries bagan to appear. The writers of the 18th century paid much attention to the "correctness" of the language. Two great men of letters, Jonathan Swift and Samuel Johnson, exerted a great influence on the development of norms of standard English. Dr Johnson compiled A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), which led to a greater standardisation of spelling.

In the 19th century, Englishman who served in the colonies brought home exotic new vocabulary, e.g. bungalow, dinghy, kangaroo, kayak, jungle, etc., which was soon adapted into the language. The Industrial Revolution and subsequent technological advancement produced a number of terms which are noe used not only in English but in many other languages, e.g. locomotive, dynamo, volt, watt, etc. During the sixteen hundred years of its history the English language has undergone constant change and is still changing.

Standard English and regional dialects

British English has a standard accent called Received Pronunciation (RP), used mainly by the middle classes, especially in the south. For almost two hudred years, until about 1960, RP was the accent of most educated Englishman, particulary those who attended public schools. Today there is a growing tendency to regard a slight regional accents as acceptable. A number of regional accents are used in Britain. One major distinguishing feature is the pronunciation of certain sounds.

For example, the Scots and Irish pronounce the 'r' constant in all positions, whereas in RP 'r' is dropped before a consonant. In some dialects 'h' at the beginning of a word is often dropped. In England we can distinguish Northern, Midlands and South Western dialects.

Scottish English

The Scots speak English, but with their own accent. The various Scottish dialects should not be confused with Gaelic, the Celtic language spoken in the north and west of the country. Scottish Gaelic, the traditional language of Scotland, is basically the same language as Irish Gaelic, and Gaelic speakers from the two countries can usually manage to understand each other. There are still plenty of people in Scotland, particularly in the Highlands, who understand Gaelic, but few places where remains the language of common conversation, apart from the Hebrides.

The variety of English spoken in Scotland by Scots descended from the language of the Saxons, who came north to avoid the Normans after 1066. Few English speakers can fully understand a true Scots speaker.

Welsh English

Welsh English is famous for its musical quality. Words are usually stressed in a different way than in RP. Welsh people often use forms of the past participle instead of the simple past tense, e.g.He never seen her. Another interesting feature of Welsh English is the sentence filler 'look you', which means 'you know'. A great number of people in Wales still use their native language, called Cymraeg or Cymric (from Cymru, meaning Wales), one of the oldest languages in Europe.

Irish English

Under the Constitution of the Republic of Irleand, the Irish language is the national language of the country, English being the second. The Irish language belongs to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. According to statistics, about 30 per cent of the population of the Republic of Irleand claim to have knowledge of Irish, although Irish Gaelic is in decline, it has influenced Irish English. A popular construction used in Irleand is to be after doing, e.g. He's after reading a book,which means that he has just finished reading a book. In spelling, the English language used in Ireland follows British practice. However, the Irish accent is different from English accents, particularly from that of southeast England. It is very musical and has a characteristic intonation. In many ways the Irish accent is a relic of the English spoken in the past. Many features of Middle English, which have completely disappeared in today's Standard English, still survive in Irish English, e.g. the second person plural 'youse' instead of Standard English 'you'.

World English

Today English is one of the richest languages in the world with a vocabulary of more than 600,000 words. However, the majority of people can communicate effectively in everyday situations with only 2,000-3,000 words. English has become an international language and at present every seventh person in the world speaks or understands English. Over a third of the world's population live in countries where English is spoken either as the native language or as one of the official languages. English is spoken as a native language by some 300 million people living in British Isles, North America, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies and South Africa. For another 300 million people living in India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Africa, English is the second language. Last but not least, English is the primary medium of international communication in science, technology, trade, aviation, diplomacy and popular culture. People who speak English fall into three categories: those for whom English is a native language; those who use English as a second language and those who have learnt English as a foreign language. It is true to say that English has become the chief world language and its importance is still growing.

PRESENT SIMPLE

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące
I/You/We/They + V1 (I like music.)
He/She/It + V1 + s (He likes music.)

Przeczenia
I/You/We/They + don't + V1 (I don't like music.)
He/She/It + doesn't + V1 (She doesn't like music.)

Pytania
Do/don't + I/you/we/they/ + V1 (Do you like music?)
Does/doesn't + he/she/it + V1 (Does she like music?)

Krótkie odpowiedzi
Yes, I/you/we/they do.
No, I/you/we/they don't.
Yes, he/she/it does.
No, he/she/it doesn't.

Zastosowanie

a. Czynność wykonywana rutynowo, stale, od czasu do czasu lub regularnie powtarzana. Często w zdaniu pojawiają się wówczas okoliczniki czasu, takie jak: always (zawsze), often (często), sometimes (czasami), usually (zwykle), never (nigdy), every day (codziennie), twice a year (dwa razy do roku) itp.
I always drink tea in the morning.
They usually spend their holidays in the mountains.
She never works on Saturdays.

b. Gdy opisujemy trwałą, permanentną sytuację.
They live in Paris.
She comes from Japan. 

c. Gdy mówimy o czynnościach, które wydarzą się w przyszłości, gdyż wynikają z przepisów, rozkładów (np. jazdy), programów itp.
The train leaves at 3.47.
The concert finishes late at night. 

d. Gdy mówimy o faktach naukowych lub obiektywnie istniejących.
Water boils at 100°C.
The sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. 

e. Gdy dajemy komuś słowne instrukcje.
First you press the red button. 

f. Gdy komentujemy wydarzenia sportowe lub opowiadamy dowcip albo anegdotę.
He jumps very high and falls down heavily.
A man comes into a pub and says... 

g. Gdy używamy czsowników "statycznych", nie przyjmujących formy ciągłej (continuous), takich jak: be, have, depend, know, think, understand, agree, like, want, hear, love, hate, see, smell, taste.
This rose smells beautiful.
I don't understand. 

h. W zdaniach warunkowych dla wyrażenia przyszłości (Conditional I) po słowach: if, when, as soon as, until, unless.
I will call you as soon as I return. 

i. Gdy coś komuś proponujemy.
Why don't we go to an Indian restaurant?

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące
I + am + V1 + ing
You/We/They + are + V1 + ing
He/She/It + is + V1 + ing

Przeczenia
I'm not
you/we/they aren't + V1 + ing
he/she/it isn't + V1 + ing

Pytania - inwersja
Am I
Are you/they/we + V1 + ing
Is he/she/it

Zastosowanie

a. Czynność wykonywana w chwili, gdy o niej mówimy.
I think he is sleeping. 

b. Gdy mówimy o czynności lub sytyacji, która ulega zmianie, rozwija się, przechodzi z jednego stanu w drugi.
He is getting old.
The climate is getting warmer. 

c. Gdy mówimy o sytuacjach tymczasowych.
They are renting a small flat at the moment. 

d. Gdy mówimy o planach i ustaleniach na przyszłość.
Are you going to the country on Friday? 

e. Gdy mówimy o irytujących lub dziwnych nawykach. (Oznaka zniecirpliwienia)
He's always complaining about everything. 

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące
I/You/We/They + have + V3
He/She/It + has + V3

Przeczenia
I/You/We/They haven't + V3
He/She/It hasn't + V3

Pytania - inwersja
Have I/you/we/they + V3?
Has he/she/it + V3?

Zastosowanie

a. Stan rozpoczął się w przeszłości i trwa do chwili obecnej.
I have had this dog for 3 years. 

b. Czynność została wykonana w niedalekiej przeszłości, a jej skutek jest widoczny lub odczuwany w chwili, gdy o niej mówimy.
I have already had my lunch (so I am not hungry). 

c. Czynność powtarzała się kilkakrotnie do chwili obecnej.
I have seen Mary three times this week. 

d. Przy czasownikach "statycznych", takich jak: believe, have, know, think, like
I have always believed in dreams.
I have never liked this town. 

e. Kiedy mówimy o tym co nam się kiedyś przydarzyło (nie ważne kiedy, ważny jest sam fakt przeżycia tego doświadczenia.)
I have read this book.
Have you ever seen an elephant? 

f. Kiedy widzimy rezultat czegoś, co zostało wykonane w przeszłości.
Someone has eaten my cake (and I am hungry now).
You haven't cleaned the floor (and it's dirty) 

g. Kiedy opowiadamy, że coś się nam przydarzyło po raz pierwszy, drugi itd.
It's the first time I've tried diving. 

h. Kiedy używamy stopnia najwyższego przymiotnika.
She's the most beautiful girl I've ever seen.
It's the worst dinner I've ever eaten. 

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące
have/has + been + V1 ing

Przeczenia
haven't/hasn't + been + V1 ing

Pytania
Have you/Has he + been + V1 ing?

Zastosowanie

a. Kiedy mówimy o czynności, która wydarzyła się niedawno, a jej skutek ciągle jest widoczny.
I've been working all day (and I'm tired). 

b. Czynność rozpoczęła się w przeszłości i trwa nieprzerwanie do chwili obecnej.
I've been living here for 3 years. 

c. Dla podkreślenia, że czynność jest tymczasowa.
I've been working here but I'm going to quit. 

d. Dla podkreślenia, że czynność nie została ukończona.
I've been reading this book but I haven' t finished yet.

PAST SIMPLE

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące

I/you/he/she/it/we/ they + V1  + ed (przy czasownikach regularnych) lub

                                           + V2 (przy czasownikach nieregularnych)

Przeczenia

I didn't + V1 (zawsze)

Pytania

Did I + V1?

Did she + V1?

Zastosowanie

a.      Czynność została wykonana w przeszłości i została zakończona.

I woke up at 7 o'clock, had breakfast and left. 

b.      Kiedy mówimy o często powtarzających się (ale już nieaktualnych) zachowaniach lub nawykach z przeszłości.

When I was younger I often went to sleep before 10 o'clock.

c.       W mowie zależnej.

He said he was hungry. 

d.      W II trybie warunkowym (w części zdania po if).

If I had more money, I would buy this car.

PAST CONTINUOUS

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące

I/he/she/it was + V1 + ing

we/you/they were + V1 + ing

Przeczenia

we/you/they weren't + V1 + ing

I/he/she/it wasn't + V1 + ing

Pytania

Were you + V1 + ing?

Was she + V1 + ing?

Zastosowanie

a.      Czynność trwała w przeszłości przez dłuższy czas.

I was waiting for you all the morning.

b.      Kiedy jakieś wydarzenie było "tłem" dla innego.

I was crossing the street when I saw him.

She phoned when we were having lunch.

c.       Kiedy dwie lub więcej czynności trwały równocześnie.

While he was watching the match she was reading a newspaper.

PAST PERFECT

Budowa

Zdania twierdzące

he/I/they + had + V3

Przeczenia

he/I/they + hadn't + V3

Pytania

Had he/I/they + V3?

Zastosowanie

a.     ...